In addition, the suggested hypot

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In addition, the suggested hypothesis of the homeostatic character of REM sleep favors the idea that the brain works in an inverse way during the state of wakefulness to assist better psychological functioning of the individual. (2002). According to Solms (2000), a renowned researcher in the neuropsychology of dreaming, these data support the essential idea proposed by Freud (1966), who maintained that one of the functions of dreaming was to allow instinctive impulses to emerge (limbic) without the censorship mechanism (dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal regions), thus allowing the attainment of repressed desires in a safe way. However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field, such as dreaming.

brain google human learning deep testing neuropsychological neural machine unified mimics system analyses stats In: R. Drucker-Coln, M. Shkurovich, & M. B. Sterman (Eds. (1995). dreaming, brain, neuropsychology, functional units, Lurias model. New Jersey: Medical Publications. (2010). Maquet, P., Pters, J. M., Aerts, J., Delfiore, G., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., & Franck, G. (1996). In the meantime, Unit 3, or the frontal lobe, simultaneously suffers an inhibition of some of its regions and an activation of others. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14(3), 283288. Vandekerckhove, M., & Cluydts, R. (2010). La Interpretacin de los Sueos. A) The First Unit is made up by the structures of the brainstem, specifically, the reticular activation system, thalamus, and monoaminergic cell groups in the brainstem, which function to activate and keep the general cortical tone needed to activate, the cerebral cortex, generating a state of alertness (Magoun, 1964; Grnli, & Ursin, 2009). Madsen (1993), using PET, found a drop in metabolism in the orbitofrontal region during REM sleep. In J. S. Antrobus, & M. Bertini. Colace, C., Salotti, P., & Ferreira, M. (2015). Life Sciences, 45(15), 13491356. Years later, using PET with H2150 radioactive tracers, which are the most suitable for sleep research, Braun et al. For example, there could be dreams with a very high emotional content due to the intense activity of Unit L, a high imaginative-visual content with an increase of activity in the right hemisphere of Unit 2, or a high narrative-linguistic content produced by the left hemisphere, but always partnered with an inhibition of the dorsolateral and basal regions of Unit 3. Optic aphasia, optic apraxia, and loss of dreaming. The usual effects of sleep deprivation on the prefrontal lobes functions are well known and include irritability, lack of attention and concentration, working memory impairments, and lack of self-regulation skills (Durmer & Dinges, 2005). (1973). The conscious state paradigm: a neurocognitive approach to waking, sleeping, and dreaming. The frontal lobe can be divided into two regions: the motor region (Brodmann areas 4, 6, and 8) and the non-motor region, or prefrontal lobe (Areas 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, and 47). Some data indicate that the prefrontal lobe does not reach maturity until between the ages of 10 to 12 years (Welsh & Pennington, 1988). doi: 10.1001/jama.1987. El Cerebro Despierto. Foulkes, D. (1982). This phenomenon has been called oneiric behavior (Jouvet et al., 1981). We can state that the oneiric craziness of every night is a necessary escape valve permitting the person to act sanely during the state of wakefulness. During REM sleep, there is an activation of the First Unit similar to what occurs in the state of wakefulness, which manifests itself with an increase of the electroencephalographic and metabolic activity in most regions of the brain. That is the reason why Hobson and Stickgold (1995) stated that dreaming represents a model for explaining schizophrenia. doi: 10.1002/ ana.410070514, Schenck, C. H., Bundlie, S. R., Patterson, A. L., & Mahowald, M. W. Schizophrenia studies with PET have shown diminished frontal lobe functioning. Furthermore, there is a lack of control over the course of dream scenes, in which there are often violations of the laws of physics. doi: 10.1126/ science.281.5380.1188, Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. 9, Mokhovaya st., Moscow, Russian Federation, 125009, Apollinaria Chursina, Scientific Researcher. (2014) found that in lucid dreaming, the active brain structures are the ones that malfunction in schizophrenia, and this is what prevents patients from becoming aware of their pathological state. For example, it has been reported that the stimulation of the cingulate gyrus in humans causes complex hallucinatory phenomena, emotional changes, rapid eye movement, and oneiric sensation.

), The Cognitive Neurosciences. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02935.x, 11, bld. This disorder is named REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and is characterized by the absence of the muscle paralysis which is customary during this stage of sleep, as a result of neurological related disorders.

The prefrontal cortex in sleep. ), Temas Selectos de Neurociencias. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(11), 475-481. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01992-7, Nofzinger, E. A. (1989). This generates a general muscle paralysis (with the exception of ocular movement), that prevents the dream from becoming an action (Berger, 1961; Jouvet, Sastre, & Sakai, 1981). Nature, 383(6596), 163166. Grnli, J., & Ursin, R. (2009). (1985) reported a case of a patient with a lesion in the left temporo-occipital region due to a cerebrovascular accident. Since its beginning, neuropsychology has focused on identifying the brain functions corresponding to psychological processes known as higher processes, such as attention, motor skills, perception, memory, language, and conscience, as well as their corresponding disorders (e.g., inattention, apraxia, agnosia, aphasia). Other indications that the prefrontal lobe is hypo-functioning during dreaming come from comparing studies of interhemispheric and intra-hemispheric electroencephalographic correlation during wakefulness, REM, and non-REM sleep. Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. This also supports the hypothesis that Unit 3 is inactive and not necessary for the dreaming process. These behaviors are not directed towards an objective, because when a piece of meat or a mouse is placed near them, they do not seem to notice them, and they continue with their stereotypical behavior. (1961). doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01818-0. Answering these and other questions will allow continuing progress in this new and interesting field in the neurosciences: the neuropsychology of dreaming. During wakefulness, complex information processing is promoted by these regions, but they are not active during non-lucid dreaming.

Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico. Making memories: Brain activity that predicts how well visual experience will be remembered. Magoun, H. W. (1964). (2003) found an absence of electroencephalographic correlation between the frontal and perceptual regions, as well as an increased correlation among the perceptual regions. (2) the orbitofrontal region, that relates to the regulation of limbic impulses, as well as (3) the parietal-temporal-occipital (PTO), that is involved in visuo-spatial recognition, symbol processing, and face and object recognition. Meanwhile, Koukkou and Lehman (1983) have suggested that the cerebral state of an adult during dreaming corresponds functionally to the state of wakefulness during childhood, based on the similarity of the electroencephalographic activity of the different phases of sleep and in human development phases. Mxico: Planeta. Mxico: UAM Iztapalapa. Thus, RBD also represents an etiological model for the study of oneiric behavior. According to the model presented in this research, dreams are difficult to remember precisely because of the lack of working memory due to the relative deactivation of the prefrontal lobe. Penis erection also occurs in males (Fisher, 1973),as well as increases in heart rate (Aldredge & Welch, 1973; emaityt, Varoneckas, & Sokolov, 1984). (1998). If, after this, we assume that reality training is a complex form of mental activity, the next questions would be: Which particular brain systems are involved in this process? Madsen, P. L. (1993). Brain and Language, 26(1), 6371. Biologa de los sueos y psicoanlisis. (2012).

(1987). (1998). Tsvetkova, L. S. (1996). Espaa: Siglo Veintiuno de Espaa. It is well known that dreams are difficult to remember in wakefulness (Fisher, 1973). doi: 10.1126/science.281.5380.1185, Buchsbaum, M. S., Gillin, J. C., Wu, J., Hazlett, E., Sicotte, N., Dupont, R. E., Bunney, W. E. (1989). Although Luria does not explicitly mention it, we believe it is convenient to incorporate the limbic system as a Fourth Unit: D) Unit L, which includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and fornix, comprises the limbic system, as well as para-limbic structures, such as the cingulate gyrus and the para-hippocampal and orbitofrontal regions. [Basic sleep mechanisms]. Right hemispheric mediation of dream visualization: A case study. Studies with positron emission computerized tomography (PET) have confirmed an increase in the brainstems metabolism (Braun et al., 1997), which generates electroencephalographic and metabolic activation, as well as stimulates of the posterior cortical and subcortical areas, especially the limbic-emotional system. These structures have a connection with Unit L. Moreover, the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe (Brodmanns areas 9, 10, 45, 46, 47) and the orbital frontal region (Brodmanns areas 11 and 12) show an inhibition during dreaming. In addition to the content of dreaming, there is an absence of control over the course of the dream scenes due to lack of the critical thinking that evaluates the coherence of what is happening; therefore, there is a passive and non-critic acceptance of what is occurring during the dream (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). (1995). Does it produce changes in the biochemical functioning of the prefrontal lobe and the limbic system? Lurias Model of the Brains Functional Units can be used to explain the generation of dreams and their characteristics.

Blood flow and oxygen uptake in the human brain during various states of sleep and wakefulness. doi: 10.1176/appi. (1997) found low metabolism in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral regions of the prefrontal lobe during REM sleep, as well as in the inferior parietal association, and simultaneously, an increase in metabolism in the visual and auditory association areas of Unit 2. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(1), 2330.

Trastornos del Sueo: Diagnstico y Tratamiento. In J. S. Antrobus, &. Pea-Casanova, J., Roig-Rovira, T., Bermudez, A., & Tolosa-Sarro, E. Hong, C. C., Gillin, J. C., Dow, B. M., Wu, J., & Buchsbaum, M. S. (2014). This has been confirmed by experimental studies in animals and humans. (2005). Dresler, M., Wehrle, R., Spoormaker, V. I., Koch, S. P., Holsboer, F., Steiger, A., Obrig, H., Smann, P. G., & Czisch, M. (2012). As an example, the cases of patients with areas of epileptogenic activity in the limbic and paralimbic regions (Unit L), as in the case of the temporal lobe epilepsy, show a higher dream-recall frequency than patients with generalized tonic-clonic seizures and normal people (Epstein, 1984; Maquet et al., 1996). Dreaming: the functional state-shift hypothesis. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.01.002, Vogel, G. W. (1979). doi: 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00037-X, Cummings, J. L. (1995). Such can be the case of people with schizophrenia (Gershon & Rieder, 1992; Goldberg, 2002) and major depression (Beck, 2008), and the 75% of criminals who exhibit low metabolism in the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness (Goldberg, 2002; Gibbs, 1995). While you were sleeping. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37(3), 247253. However, this model has not been entirely confirmed by recent studies with PET (Braun et al., 1997; Buchsbaum et al., 1989; Madsen, 1993; Maquet, 1996). All of this is due to a lack of critical thinking that can evaluate the coherence, or the lack thereof, of what is happening, so there is a passive and uncritical acceptance of everything that happens (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). It can be inferred that any variable that increases limbic system activity during dreams can cause differences in emotional intensity, ranging from little emotional content to nightmares. Science, 134(3482), 840. doi: 10.1126/science.134.3482.840, Braun, A. R., Balkin, T. J., Wesenten, N. J., Carson, R. E., Varga, M., Baldwin, P., Selbie, S., Belenky, G., & Herscovitch, P. (1997). Neuroimaging and sleep medicine. These findings were analyzed within the framework of Lurias Three Functional Unit Model of the Brain, and a proposal was made to explain certain of the essential characteristics of dreaming. This behavior is very similar to that of the Jouvet et al. The activation of the supplementary motor area (Brodmanns area 6) and primary motor area (Brodmanns area 4) produces a programming and activation of a sequence of corporal movements during the oneiric content; but said activation remains on a representational level, because an inhibition occurs in the caudal region of locus coeruleus located in the pons of the brain stem (Unit 1) due to hyperpolarization of the motoneurons in the spinal cord. Freudian dream theory today. El Cerebro Ejecutivo: Los Lbulos Frontales y la Mente Civilizada. This pattern of brain activity explains the recovery of the executive metacognitive abilities and voluntary control that characterizes lucid dreaming (Dresler et al., 2012; Noreika, Windt, Lenggenhager, & Karim, 2010). It has been proven through PET and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that during dreaming, there is an activation of the primary and supplementary motor areas, such as the frontal ocular area (Brodmanns area 8), which is activated by Unit1 and then collaborates in producing the rapid eye movements of REM sleep (Hong et al., 1995). Sleep Medicine Reviews, 20, 92-99. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2014.06.004, Durmer, J. S., & Dinges, D. F. (2005).

It can be said that dreaming is a state similar to a schizophrenic or frontal lobe syndrome, but temporary, normal, and healthy, so that the next day, the brain can carry out its homeostatic function, and promote optimal functioning of the dorsolateral and orbital region of the frontal lobe during wakefulness.

The social brain? El Cerebro en Accin. This picture shows the four Functional Units of the Brain: Unit 1(reticular system), Unit 2 (parietal, occipital and temporal lobes), Unit 3 (Frontal lobe) and Unit L (limbic system). Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 219226. The first approach toward psychobiological scientific research on the subject of dreaming occurred in 1953 when Aserinsky and Kleitman from the University of Chicago published their research, which stated that sleep with rapid eye movement, known as REM sleep, is frequently associated with dream recall. Sleep imaging and the neuro-psychological assessment of dreams. To answer this question, it would be of great help to describe the phenomenology of dreaming. Traditionally, neuropsychology has focused on identifying the brain mechanisms of specific psychological processes, such as attention, motor skills, perception, memory, language, and consciousness, as well as their corresponding disorders. This study examined the clinical and experimental neuropsychological research relevant to dreaming, ranging from sleep disorders in patients with brain damage, to brain functioning during REM sleep, using different methods of brain imaging.

As we have examined, the prefrontal lobe of the human being is extremely sensitive to sleep; its functioning is altered by sleep deprivation, and it benefits and recovers with sleep of good quality and quantity (Muzur, Pace-Schott, Hobson, 2002). Murri, L., Bonanni, E., Stefanini, A., Goldstein, L., Navona, C., & Denoth, F. (1980). Using the same technique, Maquet et al. Tonus of extrinsic laryngeal muscles during sleep and dreaming. The Neuropsychology Of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. Science, 281(5380), 11851187. Seminars in Neurology, 25(1), 117129. Themes: Tllez, A. Dresler et al. Figure 1. doi: 10.1080/87565648809540405, emaityt, D., Varoneckas, G., & Sokolov, E. (1984). Sakai, F., Meyer, J. S., Karacan, I., Derman, S., & Yamamoto, M. (1980). Science, 281(5380), 11881191. We can start by asking ourselves: Are dreaming, or dreams, a subject of study for neuropsychology? Lucid dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. El sueo REM y el sistema lmbico: Aspectos biolgicos de las ensoaciones. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(2), 193198. Sleep deprivation makes us more sensitive to emotional and stress-induced stimuli (Vandekerckhove & Cluydts, 2010). These disturbances of the dreaming process are positively correlated with the appearance of some type of agnosia (Doricchi & Violani, 1992; Kerr & Foulkes, 1981; Murri et al., 1992; Pea-Casanova, Roig-Rovira, Bermudez, & Tolosa-Sarro1985). The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(8), 969977. B., Zhao, Z., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening: tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke, 129(17), 1758-1761. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.08.0465. In the REM phase, the eyes move rapidly in all directions, and upon waking up, people frequently report having dreamt.