Neider, M. B., Chen, X., Dickins

Neider, M. B., Chen, X., Dickinson, C. A., Brennan, S. E., & Zelinsky, G. G. J. (2005). As observers gather information about a scene, including searching and recognizing features as relevant to task goals, they begin to formulate hypotheses regarding candidate diagnoses. Exploring the potential of context-sensitive CADe in screening mammography. A real-time eye tracking system for predicting and preventing postcompletion errors. We have focused primarily on competency development through education and training, and performance differences between novices and experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lobmaier, J. S., Fischer, M. H., & Schwaninger, A. Current Biology, 16, 19051910. On the other hand, this approach could introduce bias in the second physician and unintentionally increase agreement; if the first physician arrived at an incorrect interpretation, such agreement could be detrimental, demonstrating the importance of continuing research in this regard (Gandomkar, Tay, Brennan, Kozuch, & Mello-Thoms, 2018). More recently, Berbaum and colleagues demonstrated that satisfaction of search alone may not adequately describe the search process (Berbaum et al., 2015; Krupinski, Berbaum, Schartz, Caldwell, & Madsen, 2017). McCarley, J. S., Kramer, A. F., Wickens, C. D., Vidoni, E. D., & Boot, W. R. (2004). Think-aloud technique and protocol analysis in clinical decision-making research. Radiography, 12(2), 134142. Investigative Radiology, 25, 133140. As diagnosticians gain experience with a diverse range of medical images, features, and diagnoses, they develop more refined search strategies and richer knowledge that accurately guide visual attention toward diagnostically relevant image regions and away from irrelevant regions, as early as the initial holistic inspection of an image (Kundel et al., 2008). This progress affords novel insights into how the interpretive process might be improved and sustained during education, training, and clinical practice. Mandatory second opinion surgical pathology at a large referral hospital. Calvo-Merino, B., Glaser, D. E., Grzes, J., Passingham, R. E., & Haggard, P. (2005).

(1967). Google Scholar. Thus, in both search and decision-making there appear to be critical roles for working-memory capacity in predicting clinician performance. The idea that EMMEs can assist education leverages a finding from cognitive neuroscience demonstrating that observing anothers actions causes the brain to simulate making that same action (i.e., the brains mirror system), and helps students integrate the new action into their own repertoire (Calvo-Merino, Glaser, Grzes, Passingham, & Haggard, 2005; Calvo-Merino, Grzes, Glaser, Passingham, & Haggard, 2006). You think you know where you looked?

A review of eye tracking for understanding and improving diagnostic interpretation. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028928. A Bayesian optimal foraging model of human visual search. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Trueblood, J. S., Holmes, W. R., Seegmiller, A. C., Douds, J., Compton, M., Szentirmai, E., Eichbaum, Q. For example, if you are staring at a point on a screen but monitoring an upper-right area of the periphery for a change, then microsaccades are likely to show a directional shift toward the upper right. Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tufts University, 200 Boston Ave., Suite 3000, Medford, MA, 02155, USA, Department of Psychology, University of Utah, 380 1530 E, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA, Department of Pathology and University of Vermont Cancer Center, University of Vermont, 111 Colchester Ave., Burlington, VT, 05401, USA, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles, 10833 Le Conte Ave., Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA, You can also search for this author in https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2013.843627. Predicting diagnostic error in radiology via eye-tracking and image analytics: preliminary investigation in mammography. Cognitive Psychology, 12(1), 97136. 382391). Both your intention and mine are reflected in the kinematics of my reach-to-grasp movement. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-05-01-33. Alterations of pupil diameter reflecting cognitive state changes are thought to reflect modulation of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system, which indexes shifts from exploration to exploitation states (Aston-Jones & Cohen, 2005; Gilzenrat, Nieuwenhuis, Jepma, & Cohen, 2010). In other words, while previous research assumes that lengthy fixation durations indicate successful recognition, they can also indicate the perceptual uncertainty preceding incorrect recognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fabio, R. A., Incorpora, C., Errante, A., Mohammadhasni, N., Capri, T., Carrozza, C., Falzone, A. However, we also know that visual attention can be covertly shifted to other areas of a visual scene without a subsequent overt fixation on that region (Liversedge & Findlay, 2000; Treisman & Gelade, 1980). Educational Psychology Review, 21, 113140. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004424-199008000-00004. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X13492016.

This procedure was shown to improve decision-making by providing a clinician with a second opportunity to review suspicious image regions and revise their diagnosis; this procedure might be especially advantageous given that most people do not remember where they looked during a search (V, Aizenman, & Wolfe, 2016). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16, 251262. Bligh, J., Prideaux, D., & Parsell, G. (2001). Once these ROIs are established and known to the eye-tracking system, fixations can be parsed as falling within or outside of ROIs.

Satisfaction of search in chest radiography 2015.

(1997). Inhibition of return to successively stimulated locations in a sequential visual search paradigm.

Methodologies to investigate mental processes during interpretation and diagnosis have included think-aloud protocols (Lundgrn-Laine & Salanter, 2010), knowledge and memory probes (Gilhooly, 1990; Patel & Groen, 1986), practical exercises (Bligh, Prideaux, & Parsell, 2001; Harden, Sowden, & Dunn, 1984), and tracking physicians interface navigation behavior while they inspect visual images (e.g., radiographs, histology slides) (Mercan et al., 2016; Mercan, Shapiro, Bruny, Weaver, & Elmore, 2017). Medical Education, 35, 520521. Holmboe, E. S., Edgar, L., & Hamstra, S. (2016). EMMEs also ground a students education in concrete examples, provide students with unique expert insights that might otherwise be inaccessible, and help students learn explicit strategies for processing the visual image (Jarodzka et al., 2012). Consistent with this line of thinking, Manning and colleagues found that false-positives when examining chest radiographs were typically associated with longer cumulative dwell time than true-positives (Manning et al., 2006). Computer-displayed eye position as a visual aid to pulmonary nodule interpretation. How visual search relates to visual diagnostic performance: a narrative systematic review of eye-tracking research in radiology. Richstone, L., Schwartz, M. J., Seideman, C., Cadeddu, J., Marshall, S., & Kavoussi, L. R. (2010). Eye-movement study and human performance using telepathology virtual slides.

Lundgrn-Laine, H., & Salanter, S. (2010). The process of medical interpretation and diagnosis involves a complex interplay between visual perception and multiple cognitive processes, including memory retrieval, problem-solving, and decision-making. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732309354278. ), The handbook of medical image perception and techniques, (pp. Visual search patterns and experience with radiological images. In our discussion of search errors, we noted that working memory may be critical for helping an observer maintain previously viewed features in memory while exploring the remainder of an image and associating subsequently identified features with features stored in working memory (Cain et al., 2013; Cain & Mitroff, 2013). In this theory, when people attempt to solve problems in the real world, they rely not only upon existing knowledge (including heuristics and biases) but also the effective use of any available mental aids offered by the context. Kirsh, D. (2009). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315727080.

Eye tracking measures of uncertainty during perceptual decision making. 920).

It is also worth pointing out that many hospitals are introducing mandatory consultative expert second opinions for quality assurance purposes. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118341544. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 526. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00526.

Roads, B. D., Xu, B., Robinson, J. K., & Tanaka, J. W. (2018). In this manner, the task demands working-memory storage (to memorize the words) while also processing distracting arithmetic problems. How people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school.

Inspecting digital imaging for primary diagnosis introduces perceptual and cognitive demands for physicians tasked with interpreting visual medical information and arriving at appropriate diagnoses and treatment decisions. Mercan, E., Aksoy, S., Shapiro, L. G., Weaver, D. L., Bruny, T. T., & Elmore, J. G. (2016). Holmqvist, K., Nystrm, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., & Van de Weijer, J. An example of near-transfer might be a pathologist learning the features and rules for diagnosing DCIS on one case or from text-book examples, and transferring that knowledge and skill to a biopsy with similar features that clearly indicate DCIS (Roads, Xu, Robinson, & Tanaka, 2018). However, more recent research has demonstrated that microsaccades reflect shifts in covert attention (Meyberg, Werkle-Bergner, Sommer, & Dimigen, 2015; Yuval-Greenberg, Merriam, & Heeger, 2014). Geller, B. M., Nelson, H. D., Carney, P. A., Weaver, D. L., Onega, T., Allison, K. H., Elmore, J. G. (2014). During a subsequent faculty debriefing, residents were led through an individualized debrief that included a review of their eye movements during the clinical examination, with reference to scene features focused on their associated decision-making processes. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.01.004. For instance, because experts tend to move their eyes and navigate visual images differently than novices, viewing expert eye movements and patterns of navigation behavior may help observers develop more efficient search strategies.

No studies have examined the entropy of eye movements during medical image interpretation, and to our knowledge only one has examined pupil diameter (Mello-Thoms et al., 2005), revealing an exciting avenue for continuing research. The impact of microsaccades on vision: towards a unified theory of saccadic function. These sorts of errors may be a consequence of Bayesian reasoning based on prior experience: the diagnostician may not deem additional search time justifiable for a target that is exceedingly unlikely to be found (Cain, Vul, Clark, & Mitroff, 2012). 4552). Applied Cognitive Psychology, 4, 261272. Gaze behavior among experts and trainees during optic disc examination: does how we look affect what we see?

Second, watching expert eye movements can help observers recognize and learn organizational strategies for viewing and interpreting visual images, understand the experts intent, identify the organizational structure of the images, and better organize perceived information into mental schemas (Becchio, Sartori, Bulgheroni, & Castiello, 2008; Jarodzka et al., 2013; Lobmaier, Fischer, & Schwaninger, 2006). https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.53.2.117. Specifically, expert cueing can help a novice calibrate the relevance and importance of a region (Litchfield et al., 2010), which can be complemented by an experts verbal narration. Wolfe, J. M., Horowitz, T. S., & Kenner, N. M. (2005). Ashraf, H., Sodergren, M. H., Merali, N., Mylonas, G., Singh, H., & Darzi, A. Oculomotor scanning and target recognition in luggage x-ray screening. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.91.2.276. Although much of the research on the low prevalence effect has focused on basic findings with nave subjects, research has also shown that low prevalence also influences diagnostic accuracy in a medical setting (Egglin & Feinstein, 1996; Evans, Birdwell, & Wolfe, 2013). In the real world, errors emerge at every step of that process.

Learning and Instruction, 25, 6270. Young, L. R., & Stark, L. (1963). Jarodzka, H., Van Gog, T., Dorr, M., Scheiter, K., & Gerjets, P. (2013). 115132). Covert shifts of attention function as an implicit aid to insight. (2008). Medical Physics, 37, 57285736. Medical Physics, 45, 48444956. Why do we miss rare targets? International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 36, 289300. (2015). van Gog, T., Jarodzka, H., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Paas, F. (2009). volume4, Articlenumber:7 (2019)

These explicit feature recognitions can then be assessed for their accuracy and predictive value toward accurate diagnosis. Human stopping strategies in multiple-target search. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djh067. These early studies suggest that eye tracking can be a valuable tool for helping dissociate putative sources of error during medical image interpretation (i.e., search, recognition, and decision-making), given that high-resolution foveal vision appears to be critical for diagnostic interpretation. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10278-017-9990-5. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 8396. IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, 1, 3851. Implications for medical education and differences with experience. The role of locus coeruleus in the regulation of cognitive performance. Cognition, 111, 168174. To further differentiate errors of recognition versus decision-making, Kundel and Nodine distinguished trials where the radiologist fixated within 2.8 of a nodule for greater than or less than 600 ms.

311342). Modern Pathology, 29(9), 1004. https://doi.org/10.1038/modpathol.2016.85. In most research to date, eye gaze has been used to provide immediate feedback and guidance for a novice during the active exploration of a visual stimulus. Human Pathology, 37(12), 15431556. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(89)90040-5. But there are few methods for providing feedback regarding the dynamic interpretive process; for instance, how a microscope was panned and zoomed, which features were inspected, and precisely where in the process difficulties may have arisen (Bok et al., 2013; 2016; Kogan, Conforti, Bernabeo, Iobst, & Holmboe, 2011; Wald, Davis, Reis, Monroe, & Borkan, 2009). Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 7, 334337. In that study, eye movements were tracked in emergency medicine residents during objective structured clinical examinations in a simulation environment. As additional evidence of this phenomenon, when expert eye gaze is superimposed during a simulated laparoscopic surgery task, novices are not only faster to locate critical diagnostic regions, but also more likely to incorporate that region into their diagnosis and ultimately reduce errors (Chetwood et al., 2012). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199539789.013.0022. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 24, 15211543. Medical Teacher, 40(1), 6269.

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Analysis of mental workload during en-route air traffic control task execution based on eye-tracking technique. Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999).

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. (2012).

Balslev, T., Jarodzka, H., Holmqvist, K., De Grave, W., Muijtjens, A. M. M., Eika, B., Scherpbier, A. J. J. In addition to measuring the ballistic movements of the eyes, eye trackers also provide continuous recordings of pupil diameter. Google Scholar.

As the eyes move, the computed point of regard in space also moves. Results demonstrated that all residents deemed the inclusion of eye tracking in the debriefing as a valuable feedback tool for learning, making them more likely to actively reflect on their learning experience, constructively critique themselves and compare themselves to experts, and plan responses for future clinical scenarios (Szulewski et al., 2018). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Medical Teacher, 29, 642647. Chapter Nalanagula, D., Greenstein, J. S., & Gramopadhye, A. K. (2006). Nagarkar, D. B., Mercan, E., Weaver, D. L., Bruny, T. T., Carney, P. A., Rendi, M. H., Elmore, J. G. (2016). (2001). https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931213601289. For instance, Johns Hopkins Hospital and the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics introduced mandatory second opinions for surgical pathology (Kronz, Westra, & Epstein, 1999; Manion, Cohen, & Weydert, 2008).

), Eye movements and the higher psychological processes, (pp. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(11), 16011602. Custers, E. J. F. M. (2015). Studies in the medical domain have provided more nuanced understandings of visual interpretation and diagnostic decision-making in diverse medical specialties including radiology, pathology, pediatrics, surgery, and emergency medicine (Al-Moteri, Symmons, Plummer, & Cooper, 2017; Blondon & Lovis, 2015; van der Gijp et al., 2017). Funke, G., Greenlee, E., Carter, M., Dukes, A., Brown, R., & Menke, L. (2016). Where do neurologists look when viewing brain CT images? Influence of visual and motor familiarity in action observation. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004424-199002000-00006. Expertise in a complex skill: diagnosing x-ray pictures. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2014.956052. New York: The Free Press.

Google Scholar. This means that they are quite good at tracking overt central visual attention, but they are not intended for tracking covert peripheral visual attention (Holmqvist et al., 2011). As we noted above, medical training frequently involves explicit feedback by instructors on exams and worked examples. Medical Science Educator, 23(1), 1626. PubMed Cognitive psychology: rare items often missed in visual searches. (2002). (2005). In an ideal scenario, critical diagnostic features are detected during search and recognized, which leads the clinician to successfully develop and test hypotheses and produce an accurate diagnosis. (2017). A search error would be evidenced by a failure to fixate on a nodule, and a recognition or decision error would occur when a fixation on a nodule is not followed by a successful identification and diagnosis.

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Bok, H. G. J., Jaarsma, D. A. D. C., Spruijt, A., Van Beukelen, P., Van Der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Teunissen, P. W. (2016). (2015). Movement measures quantify the patterns of eye movements through space during saccades, including the distance between successive saccades (degrees of saccade amplitude) and the speed of saccades (typically average or peak velocity). Viewing another persons eye movements improves identification of pulmonary nodules in chest x-ray inspection.

Numerosity measures quantify the frequency with which the eyes fixate and saccade while perceiving a scene, such as how many fixations and saccades have occurred during a given time, and how those counts might vary as a function of position (and the visual information available at different positions). (2014). In R. S. Michalski, J. G. Carbonell, & T. M. Mitchell (Eds. Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. New York: Elsevier. Some of the earliest research using eye tracking during medical image interpretation was done during x-ray film inspection (Kundel & Nodine, 1978). Unfortunately, this prior study is limited by its size and breadth (four residents at a single training location), the restriction of observers ability to zoom or pan the medical image, and a reliance on the same experimental images each year. This proposal has not been examined with diagnosticians inspecting medical images, though it suggests that physicians with higher working memory capacity may show higher performance when searching for multiple features, offering an interesting avenue for future research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.004. Krupinski, E. A., Tillack, A. Kieras, D. E., & Bovair, S. (1984). For instance, an expert may saccade intentionally between features that help the observer effectively discriminate them, possibly helping them form a more thorough understanding of how to distinguish features and associated diagnoses.

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Individual differences include variables such as personality traits and cognitive abilities, and a substantial body of research demonstrates that these variables constantly influence real-world behavior (Motowildo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0364-0213(84)80003-8. (1959). Competency-based medical education (CBME) is intended to produce health professionals who consistently demonstrate expertise in both practice and certification (Aggarwal & Darzi, 2006). Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research. Evaluation of the effect of feedforward training displays of search strategy on visual search performance. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020082. An eye-tracking study involving stroke cases.

Educational strategies in curriculum development: the SPICES model. Differences in eye tracking and gaze patterns between trainees and experts reading plain film bunion radiographs. Medical Teacher, 29, 648654. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.128.4.612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2005.03.071. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1076-6332(03)80499-3. Eye-tracking technologies are becoming increasingly available in the consumer and research markets and provide novel opportunities to learn more about the interpretive process, including differences between novices and experts, how heuristics and biases shape visual perception and decision-making, and the mechanisms underlying misinterpretation and misdiagnosis. Findlay, J. M., & Gilchrist, I. D. (2008). (1988). Cognitive Science, 10, 91116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-011-2143-x. Educational Psychology Review, 23(4), 523552. https://doi.org/10.1145/1054972.1054993. Kogan, J. R., Conforti, L., Bernabeo, E., Iobst, W., & Holmboe, E. (2011). A search error occurs when the eyes fail to fixate a critical region of a visual scene, rendering a feature undetected; these have also been labeled as scanning errors because the critical feature was not in the scan path (Cain, Adamo, & Mitroff, 2013). More research is needed to understand whether EMMEs promote only near-transfer, or whether multiple EMME experiences can promote relatively far-transfer by promoting perceptual differentiation of features, accurate feature recognition, and more accurate and efficient mapping of features to candidate diagnoses. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 12431249. In other words, their eye movements increasingly resemble those of experts as they progress through training. Bruny, T. T., Mercan, E., Weaver, D. L., & Elmore, J. G. (2017). Journal of Sleep Research, 15, 4753. Surgical Endoscopy and Other Interventional Techniques, 26, 20032009. Bordage, G. (1999). In The nature of expertise, (pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-015-9585-1. Medical Teacher, 24, 136143. Jungk, A., Thull, B., Hoeft, A., & Rau, G. (2000). Here we consider one individual difference that warrants more consideration in the domains of medical image interpretation and decision-making: working-memory capacity.

Third, well-organized expert eye movements can help an observer recognize relations within and between images, helping them discriminate similar features and possibly promote transfer to novel cases (Kieras & Bovair, 1984). https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181a8592f. van der Gijp, A., Ravesloot, C. J., Jarodzka, H., van der Schaaf, M. F., van der Schaaf, I. C., van Schaik, J. P. J., & ten Cate, T. J.

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