[16] Outside the confines of the

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[16] Outside the confines of their homes, matrons were expected to wear veils; a matron who appeared without a veil was held to have repudiated her marriage.

Unprocessed animal hides were supplied directly to tanners by butchers, as a byproduct of meat production; some was turned to rawhide, which made a durable shoe-sole. Rome's governing elite produced laws designed to limit public displays of personal wealth and luxury. [53], The Flamen priesthood was dedicated to various deities of the Roman state. The sheep of Tarentum were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. It is possible that the front was a separate hairpiece made of curls which were glued or sewn onto backing. Macmullen, R. (1980): Women in public in the Roman empire,Historia29: 208-18. Over this, girls were also known to wear a togapraetextaas boys do. They too wore the apex, but otherwise dressed as archaic warriors, in embroidered tunics and breastplates. [42] The colour of the ranker's sagum is uncertain. In tradition and law, an individual's place in the citizen-hierarchy or outside it should be immediately evident in their clothing. [33], Public protocol required red ankle boots for senators, and shoes with crescent-shaped buckles for equites, though some wore Greek-style sandals to "go with the crowd". The Historia Augusta claims that the emperor Elagabalus was the first Roman to wear garments of pure silk (holoserica) as opposed to the usual silk/cotton blends (subserica); this is presented as further evidence of his notorious decadence. It was thought to sanctify and protect those who wore it, and was officially reserved for the border of the toga praetexta, and for the solid purple toga picta. Therefore, they used many oils. [95] Most Romans lived in apartment blocks with no facilities for washing or finishing clothes on any but the smallest scale. [85], Throughout the Regal, Republican, and Imperial eras, the fastest, most expensive and sought-after dye was imported Tyrian purple, obtained from the murex. It could also be worn by noble and freeborn boys and girls, and represented their protection under civil and divine law. In the later empire after Diocletian's reforms, clothing worn by soldiers and non-military government bureaucrats became highly decorated, with woven or embellished strips, clavi, and circular roundels, orbiculi, added to tunics and cloaks. As we can see in this post, fashion is an important indicator of status in Roman women. According to Roman tradition, soldiers had once worn togas to war, hitching them up with what was known as a "Gabine cinch"; but by the mid-Republican era, this was only used for sacrificial rites and a formal declaration of war. They were originally awarded to Roman generals for the day of their triumph, but became official dress for emperors and Imperial consuls. [64], Wild silk, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, was also known;[71] being of shorter, smaller lengths, its fibres had to be spun into somewhat thicker yarn than the cultivated variety. Harlow, M. (2004): Female dress, 3rd 6th centuries: the messages in the media.Antiquit Tardive12: 203-15. Toga wearing was much less common in art, leading to the interpretation that togas were a ceremonial garment. Often, women would receive this as a wedding present.

After harvesting, the plant stems were retted to loosen the outer layers and internal fibres, stripped, pounded and then smoothed. In traditionalist families, unmarried girls might be expected to wear their hair demurely bound in a fillet. According to Seneca, tutor to Nero, a proposal that all slaves be made to wear a particular type of clothing was abandoned, for fear that the slaves should realise both their own overwhelming numbers, and the vulnerability of their masters. In literature and poetry, Romans were the gens togata ("togate race"), descended from a tough, virile, intrinsically noble peasantry of hard-working, toga-wearing men and women. Before her wedding, a girl would set aside her toga praetexta to be dedicated to Fortuna Virginalis and wear the plain white tunica recta of a new bride (Sebesta and Bonfate 2001). Thepeploswas commonly hidden by thepalla. Whites were used in ceremonies and holidays like weddings and birthdays. Garments were placed in large tubs containing aged urine, then well trodden by bare-footed workers. Girls often wore a long tunic that reached the foot or instep, belted at the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices of 301 AD set the price of one kilo of raw silk at 4,000 gold coins. Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls.

Naturally dark wool was used for the toga pulla and work garments subjected to dirt and stains. With this in mind, we can now question what Imperial Roman women actually wore. On occasion, girls could be seen in togas, but a woman in a toga sent a very specific message: that they were either a prostitute, or an adulterer (Croom 2010). The toga virilis ("toga of manhood") was a semi-elliptical, white woolen cloth some 6 feet (1.8m) in width and 12 feet (3.7m) in length, draped across the shoulders and around the body. [36][37], Fashions in footwear reflected changes in social conditions. As girls reached an age that they could marry, their hairstyles became increasingly more complex. Clean, bright clothing was a mark of respectability and status among all social classes. They wore a white, priestly infula, a white suffibulum (veil) and a white palla, with red ribbons to symbolise their devotion to Vesta's sacred fire, and white ribbons as a mark of their purity.

The Fonseca bust (left) shows an example of the extreme hair of the Flavian era (Bartman 2001). One could also bathe in donkey milk to whiten their entire complexion (Olson 2009). The manufacture and trade of clothing and the supply of its raw materials made an important contribution to the Roman economy. In the late 3rd century the distinctive Pannonian "pill-box" hat became firstly a popular, and then a standard item of legionary fatigues.

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The fastenings and brooches used to secure garments such as cloaks provided further opportunities for personal embellishment and display. Heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, revealing the general militarization of late Roman government. It was also common for Roman women to dye/bleach their hair. Women wore both loincloth and strophium (a breast cloth) under their tunics; and some wore tailored underwear for work or leisure. The worst possible face whitener was cerussa (AKA sugar of lead) which is as bad as it sounds, a mixture of white lead and vinegar (Olson 2009). We have an idea of what kinds of clothes Roman women would wear thanks in part to Roman art and literary sources (Harlow 2012). [64] As Roman weaving techniques developed, silk yarn was used to make geometrically or freely figured damask, tabbies and tapestry. This means that someone had to dive for, shell, collect, and refine the dye from all these molluscs. It seems as though ancient Roman fashion does not come without a rank smell. The toga praetexta can be seen on multiple reliefs, the most notable being the girl on the north side of the Ara Pacis (Sebesta and Bonfate 2001). Sebesta, J. [47], In Mediterranean climates, soldiers typically wore hobnailed "open boots" (caligae). Outdoors and in public, a chaste matron's hair was bound up in woollen bands (fillets, or vitae) in a high-piled style known as tutulus.

In young girls, hair could be worn in loose curls down the back, but was usually tied back as the girl aged. None were particularly successful, as the same wealthy elite had an appetite for luxurious and fashionable clothing. Clothing, footwear and accoutrements identified gender, status, rank and social class. However, natural dyes, bleach, powders, gels, and pomade were also used (Bartman 2001).

But it is also possible that it was created using stiff wax and yarn to sew it together. Male citizens who failed to meet a minimum standard could be demoted in rank, and denied the right to wear a toga; by the same token, female citizens could be denied the stola. On occasion, reliefs might show the dress of a female slave as well.

Pliny the Elder claims that the dung comes from land-dwelling crocodiles who live on sweet smelling flowers which makes their dung smell nice, however it seems like Pliny might not have much experience with crocodile dung (Olson 2009). The earliest evidence for the transition from vertical to more efficient horizontal, foot-powered looms comes from Egypt, around 298 AD. [84] Even then, the lack of mechanical aids in spinning made yarn production a major bottleneck in the manufacture of cloth. Relative to the overall basic cost of living, even simple clothing was expensive, and was recycled many times down the social scale. Freedmen were forbidden to wear any kind of toga. This was especially apparent in the distinctive, privileged official dress of magistrates, priesthoods and the military. In colder parts of the empire, full length trousers were worn. High quality clothing could be hired out to the less-well-off who needed to make a good impression. When a girl safely matured into a woman, this was signified by menarche (Sebesta and Bonfate 2001).

Tunic [52], The Vestal Virgins tended Rome's sacred fire, in Vesta's temple, and prepared essential sacrificial materials employed by different cults of the Roman state. It was encouraged for Roman women to have healthy pale skin (Olson 2009). Although the teams and their supporters had official recognition, their rivalry sometimes spilled into civil violence and riot, both within and beyond the circus venue. Not all dyes were costly, however, and most Romans wore colourful clothing.

[27][28], Notwithstanding such attempts to protect the maidenly virtue of Roman girls, there is little anecdotal or artistic evidence of their use or effective imposition. 8182 in, For more general discussion see Wilson, A., and Flohr, M. eds. Their wool was processed and woven in dedicated manufactories. Spinning and weaving were thought virtuous, frugal occupations for Roman women of all classes. Edicts against its wider, more casual use were not particularly successful; it was also used by wealthy women and, somewhat more disreputably, by some men.

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